WHAT'S HAPPENING IN EUROPE? - THE EUROPEAN PROJECT

By Gerrit Jan Bouwhuis

Introduction

In the preceding articles I described the two major post-war changes in Europe (immigration and the formation of the EU); the difficult debate about immigration and the culture war around “woke”.

In this article the post-war “European project” is described - its essentials and the most important facts. If you want to know more, consult the English Wikipedia articles or the EU website itself: many days of detailed information. This article is purely descriptive. From the end of April I will address the issues currently arising, comment on them and pay attention to the European Elections in June.

The birth of the European project: the foundation of the institutions

European integration was already being considered before and during WWII. Important moments after WWII were a speech by Churchill in Zurich (1946), the Amsterdam Congress (1948) and the Schuman Declaration (May 9, 1950). The Congress of Amsterdam (750 participants from many walks of life: politics, economics, religion, art; among them: Churchill, Adenauer, Monnet, and Schuman led to the European Movement, the College of Europe (1949 Bruges, Belgium) and the Council of Europe (1949). The European Movement is a lobby organization for the promotion of European integration. The College of Europe is a post-graduate institute for European studies with 400 students annually. The Council of Europe will be described below. The Schuman Declaration led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC, 1952), the European Economic Community (EEC, 1957) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom, 1957). In the EEC most important was agriculture, communitarian since 1957.

In the year 1948, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation was also established. Its task was the administering of the Marshall funds. In 1961, this organization was transformed into an Organization of Developed Countries for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) with 38 members around the world. 

The birth of the European project took place in response to WWII and in response to Europe disintegrating into a communist and a Western bloc, a process that took place during this time. The project became Western European and would largely remain so until 1990.

The birth of the European project: the motives

The primary motive was WWII: never war again. The ECSC is the clearest example of this: making the “fuel for war” (coal and steel) to a common project was supposed to make war impossible. A second motive is the formation of the communist bloc. This led to the establishment of NATO (1949), but the US also exerted pressure on the economic integration of (West) Germany into Europe as a counterweight to the Eastern Bloc. In addition, more ideological considerations also played a role. This is most clear with Schuman, French Minister of Foreign Affairs. He is the spiritual father, the architect of Europe, godfather of the Declaration on May 9, 1950, now “European Day”. He was a deeply religious Catholic Bible scholar, an expert in medieval philosophy and Thomas Aquinas. For him, the European project was a second chance to bring about European unity, where the church had failed in the in the Middle Ages. Many Catholics were also at the cradle of the European project. Catholic Italy became one of the six founders. But the European idea also found fertile ground among socialists and advocates of the market economy. Both have an international focus. Reservations later came mainly from Protestants and conservatives, both more focused on own identity and subsidiarity (although the latter is a Catholic/Thomist concept). Understandably, for the UK, being an island, the same applied.

Federalism

The concept of federalism is essential to understand discussions about European integration. What is Federalism? Federalism is the form of government in which sovereignty is shared between the central state and constituent states, constitutionally established. Constituent states have their own authority that cannot be limited by the central authority. Of the 196 states in the world, 27 are federations, including: Germany, Ethiopia, India, the US, Switzerland. The principle of federalism says nothing about the concrete content. That is not fixed. Brugmans, the first rector of the College of Europe, explained this beautifully in a “radio series” in 1962. He speaks of “federalism as an attitude to life” and says: “it is not a political dogma; it looks at the current context; it seeks a pragmatic balance between solidarity and differentiation; what is always needed is a will for mutual understanding and compromise.” In practice, the central-decentralized division can vary, so to speak, from 90-10 to 10-90. So, what do “federalists” want? In an existing unitary state, “federalists” will want transfer of sovereignty to federal states, e.g. Catalonia in Spain and Flanders in Belgium. In the European project, “federalists” want to transfer sovereignty from existing countries to the EU. In the EU, the federalists are the “unity-ists”. The Belgian Guy Verhofstadt is the outstanding example.

The Council of Europe

The Council of Europe is not the EU (but flag and song are the same). Almost all countries with territory in Europe (including Turkey) are members: 46 in total. The seat is in Strasbourg. The Council stands for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. The Council has no supranational powers. Everything is arranged by Treaties. The Treaty System now includes 220 treaties, partial agreements, conventions, and protocols. The most important treaty is the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR; 1953). The Council includes six institutions and twelve other bodies. The main institution is The European Court of Human Rights (1959) (ECHR). Russia was removed from the Council in 2022. The Council of Europe is a “side panel” of the overall European project, nevertheless important!

The European main project: further development

Two elements are involved: form: design of structures; content: expansion of areas and competencies. It should be stressed that the EU and its predecessors are largely a “sui generis” construct: unique; no comparison elsewhere. Key point is supranationality, transfer of sovereignty to “Brussels”.

First, design of structures. The three Communities (ECSC, Euratom, EEC) existed until 1993. From then on they together became the so-called “first pillar”. Added were two additional “pillars”. The three “pillars” existed till 2009. Then the single legal entity “European Union” was formed. This is only about the legal structures.

Second, areas and competences. Between 1957 and 1985 not much changed. The communities grew from 6 to 12 members. Then the decade 1985-1995 came. These years are by far the most important in de development of the European project, the years of Jacques Delors as the President of the European Commission, Helmut Kohl, as the German Chancellor and Francois Mitterrand, as the French President. Three powerful driving personalities. Huge steps were made: a) the free movement of persons (“abolition of borders”) in the Schengen Treaty 1985; b) the free movement of capital, goods and services  (internal market) in the Single European Act 1986; c) the Common Foreign and Security Policy (external safety); d) the Policy for Justice and Home Affairs (internal safety); e) the Euro; f) the European citizenship. The last four decisions in the Maastricht Treaty 1992. These were five major steps in expanding areas and competences (supranationality) and a symbolic one (the “citizenship”). All steps were realized in the nineties. As the most historic can be seen the deal Kohl/Mitterrand: German unification in exchange for giving up the German Mark. After 1992 supranationality was further strengthened in Amsterdam, 1997 and Nice, 2001. The last Treaty (Lisbon, 2009) (creating the “European Union”) was intended as a “Constitution”. It was rejected in referendums by the Netherlands and France in 2005. Nevertheless, it was implemented, however with limited adjustments.

The EU: its members, friends, and neighbours

The expansion of the number of members was as follows: 1952/1957: France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg (the founders); 1973: UK, Ireland, Denmark (1963: veto De Gaulle against UK); Norway was left out because the Norwegians said no in a Referendum; 1981: Greece; 1986: Spain, Portugal; 1995: Austria (the “neutral” country; not a NATO member), Finland, Sweden; 2004: the three Baltic countries Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania; the four Central European countries: Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary; Malta and Cyprus; 2007: the two Eastern Balkan countries: Romania and Bulgaria; 2013: the Western Balkan country of Croatia; 2020: Brexit. Score: 27. Brexit in fact was the final chapter in a long history of a European country, the UK, that essentially did not want to transfer sovereignty (four opt-outs) and also did not want to pay (Thatcher famoulsy said “I want my money back”).

Potential further accessions: the six Western Balkan countries: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Montenegro and Serbia. Furthermore: Moldova, Georgia and Ukraine? Negotiations with Turkey have been at a standstill since 2018. In order to join, a country must have the ability to implement the “acquis” (the whole of EU law, regulations and case law).

Four countries affiliated in the Europe Free Trade Association (EFTA; Liechtenstein; Norway, Iceland, Switzerland) are partially economically linked to the EU. The mini-states of Monaco, Andorra, San Marino and Vatican are also partly connected to the EU. For example, they have the Euro. Yes, we have many countries in Europe….

The EU has “Association Agreements” with two groups of countries. These agreements are not a steppingstone to membership, but forms of cooperation with “neighbors”. This concerns: a) the Mediterranean group: Palestine, Tunisia, Morocco, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Algeria; b) the Eastern European group: these were: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine. Belarus has now suspended its partnership in 2021 and Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova have been granted candidate member status.

The EU: its institutions

The European Union has seven institutions:

• the European Council: the 27 heads of government and presidents, the most important body (meeting in Brussels);

• the Council of the European Union (not the Council of Europe!): the 27 sectoral ministers in various compositions (meeting in Brussels);

• the European Parliament: 705 members; elections since 1979 (meeting alternately in Brussels and Strasbourg: the “travel circus”);

• the European Commission: 27 commissioners, the executive (not a government; they would like that!) (seated at Brussels);

• the Court of Justice (seated at Luxembourg);

• the European Court of Auditors (idem) the European Central Bank (seated at Frankfurt).

The first four institutions are also called political institutions, the last three non-political institutions. In addition, there are more than 40 agencies spread throughout Europe. Examples: the European Medicines Agency (Amsterdam); the European Institute for Gender Equality (Vilnius, Lithuania); the European Environment Agency (Copenhagen, Denmark).

The EU: its powers, areas, and core data

The EU's powers can be divided into three groups:

1. Exclusive powers (only the EU can set rules and take decisions): the customs union; competition; the monetary policy of the Euro countries; the common fisheries policy; the common commercial policy;

2. Shared powers (Member States may only exercise their powers when the EU does not/does not want to do so): the internal market; social policy (for some aspects); regional policy; agriculture and fisheries (excl. ad a); environment; consumer transport protection; trans-European networks; energy; the area of freedom, security and justice; research, technological development and space; development cooperation and humanitarian aid.

3. Supporting competences (the EU may only support, coordinate, complement): health; industry; culture; tourism; education;

The principles of proportionality and subsidiarity apply to the exercise of the powers. Further on it is important that the EU has an annual budget of 130 billion, which is largely spent on subsidies. The EU is also a “redistribution machine” from net contributors (richer countries, especially Germany) to poorer countries (mostly Eastern Europe).

Some data: Population: 448 million (South Africa: 60 million); area: 4,233,255 km2 (South Africa: 1,219,090 km2); GNP: US$16.6 trillion (South Africa US$791 billion); Income per capita: €35,200 (South Africa: €12,000); Languages: 24 (South Africa: 11); employees: 60.000.

The EU: regulations and opt-outs

The EU is based on two treaties: the Treaty of Rome, 1997 and the Maastricht Treaty, 1992. Other treaties are amendments. Added to the treaties are 37 protocols, 2 annexes en 65 declarations.  In addition to this there is a huge amount of lower regulation.

Under EU regulations it is possible to negotiate an opt-out from the application of certain regulations. Currently three countries have opt-outs: Denmark: Euro; Schengen; Justice; Ireland: Schengen; Justice; Poland: Charter of Fundamental Rights. When the UK was still a member, it had four opt-outs: Euro, Schengen, Charter and Justice. Poland does not have an opt out for the Euro but will only join if it meets the conditions. Sweden does not have an opt-out for the Euro either, so it is obliged to introduce the Euro, but uses a Referendum held in 2003 with a negative outcome (56% against) as an argument for not introducing the Euro. They will not organize a new Referendum!

Concluding comment

Summarizing, this overview presented the main developments and facts regarding the European project. In a few weeks some more interesting stories about Europe will follow.

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About the author: Gerrit Jan Bouwhuis (1948) was advisor to the Minister of Finance in the Netherlands. After his retirement he made study trips to Africa and Eastern Europe. Since 2018, he has worked as an international election observer in Ukraine, Iraq, and Turkey.